Western Lit. 1-30: Ethics and the progress of History?

     The biblical narrative exists within the context of a rich historical setting and draws influence from many popular works surrounding it. There is a crucial difference between the Bible and all other ancient literature: in the Bible, ethics are crucial in determining the direction and development of history. Throughout all of scripture, an emphasis is always placed on the importance of ethics as a guiding principle and the consequences of choosing between good and evil. Therefore, if we are to understand the view of scripture, we must understand its views on the role of ethics in history. This essay explores the key role of ethics in the development of history as presented in the Bible. The reader should come to this understanding by analyzing key stories and passages that demonstrate the centrality of ethical living in the biblical narrative.

The Bible as a whole emphasizes the significance of ethics in relation to the development of history, but this message is particularly prominent in the early sections of Genesis. At the beginning of the story, God is depicted as the sovereign creator, the bringer of order and goodness to the world. In Genesis 1-3, man is presented as a ruler over creation, made in the image of God, responsible for upholding the ethical system imposed by the sovereign. However, the temptation to prioritize human knowledge and morality over the wisdom of God's system leads to conflict. This eventually results in the sanction of spiritual death for those who choose their own morality over obedience to the Father. The story of Cain and Abel exemplifies this conflict. In this story, Cain fails to give proper respect to the sovereign by making a proper sacrifice. As a result his sacrifice is rejected, making it worthless. In turn, the bitterness of Cain results in him falling prey to sin through the first death. As a result, Cain is ostracized from the community, though not given the death penalty. This oddity seems to stem from the inherent value of every individual, an essential part of biblical ethics. The building of the first cities by Cain, described in this story, is presented as an example of the immorality of man serving as the guiding principle of civilization. The story of these two brothers reinforces the idea that actions have consequences and that man must respect the order of a higher power.

The story of Noah and the Ark, found in chapters 6-9 of Genesis, further illustrates the consequences of widespread evil and the importance of living according to God's ethical system. God enacts worldwide justice and recreation through the very waters of creation, with the Ark serving as a saving sanctuary of grace for the faithful. The story also reinforces the idea of the Adamic covenant, as God reaffirms his expectations for man. In the story of Ham, we see a man who refuses to turn away from his father's naked sins and as a consequence, passes this sin down to his own son, carrying the concept of generational sin into the new age of man. This strongly supports the narrative that ethical sanctions play a key role in the development of history.

In Genesis 11, the story of the Tower of Babel presents the sin of man as the romantic pursuit of our mortal ambitions in rebellion against God. The attempt to create a way to perfection apart from the divine ethical system leads to the fracturing of society and the collapse of the mortal hierarchy. The story introduces the concept of ideology, the romanticization of one's own sinful identity apart from ethics. The central idea conveys that the desire to forge meaning outside the ethical system of divine hierarchy erodes society and fractures mankind. The state is depicted as the key perpetrator of this sin. However, it is composed of unethical individuals who have chosen to prioritize their own desires over obedience to God.

Throughout Genesis, the centrality of ethics in the narrative is emphasized. The symbolism of these stories is dense, but the focus is primarily on ethical themes rather than technical details. These stories seek to build an understanding of the biblical covenant, which is a covenant and a narrative driven by the moral order of the universe. The covenant presents five points: the sovereignty of God, the role of man as God's agent over creation, the function of God's law as the standard for judgment, the predictable two-fold sanctions of the law, and inheritance or disinheritance. These stories reinforce these points through their depiction of the consequences of ethical living and the importance of obedience to God's ethical system.

In many ways, the Psalms retell the stories of Genesis from an ethical perspective. Each chapter further emphasizes the importance of adhering to God's ethical system. They present the idea that obedience to God leads to prosperity, while disobedience leads to ruin. The Psalms also depict God as a righteous judge who punishes the wicked and rewards the righteous. This reinforces the idea that moral choices play an instrumental role in the progress of history through the consequences they bring.

The prophets, particularly Isaiah and Jeremiah, further expand on the theme of ethics in the development of history. They present God as a just and holy judge who will punish the wicked and bring about justice for the righteous. Many songs and poems in their books support the concept of national consequences for disobedience to God's ethical system. Nations that turn away from God will be punished, while those who remain faithful will be blessed.

In the New Testament, Jesus further emphasizes the importance of ethical living and the consequences of disobedience. In the Sermon on the Mount, Jesus teaches the importance of inner righteousness rather than outward actions, and emphasizes the importance of living according to God's ethical system. Christ taught that those who believe in him will imitate his virtues, leading to a life of infinite fulfillment. This results in the kingdom of heaven coming to earth in the life of God's people. Ultimately, biblical history ends with the final judgment, which places a priority on the choices that have guided one's life.

To sum up, the Bible teaches that the cosmic conflicts of history are ethical. The central narrative of the text is based on the consequences of choosing between good and evil, right and wrong, lawful and unlawful. The narrative is supported by the five points of the covenant: the sovereignty of God, the agency of man to rule in God's image, the objective law of God being the central principle for living right, the absolute justice of the divine, and the idea that the meek inherit the earth. Throughout each story and passage in the Bible, the issues of life are presented as ethics first with technical details second in importance. God is presented as a soverign lawgiver, and a just and holy judge who punishes the wicked and rewards the righteous. The key emphasis of the scriptures rests on living in accordance with God's standards and principles. Holy judgement from God according to these principles is both the beginning, driving force, and end of history. In the Biblical narrative, there is no doubt that ethics are the most crucial factor in the direction and development of history.

Western Civ. 1-30:

What points is Pericles trying to make about Athens in his Funeral Oration?

    The history of the west is laced with stories of great heroes and great men, and all these are a credit to the historian, the writer, and the playwright who made them famous. Of ancient Athens, a so-called great hero is found in Pericles, the leader of his nation. His deeds are recorded by Thucydides, the great historian of the Peloponnesian war. His histories absolutely exclude supernatural explanations and unreliable testimony, but with one exception. The overarching narrative is driven by idealized or fictional speeches. These are stylized attempts to give an elegant window for understanding motivation and emotion. A classic example is the funeral oration of Pericles. The speech was delivered after the first year of the war, at a time when many were beginning to doubt their resolve toward conflict. The speech is considered a rousing attempt to revive the morale of the Athenian people for their city. 

    In what is considered one of the great speeches of history, Pericles makes the case for the great struggle of the day. As only a true Apollonian could, he praises the sacrifices of the dead worthy of imitation. He praises their great ancestors and the honorable legacy they are defending. Finally, he praises the present virtues of the Athenian people and their 'great state'. The ultimate goal is to seize up the torch of their legacy, to carry it down through history, and to carry on their current war as a duty to future generations.

    The great statesman begins by saying that it is very difficult to give true honor to the dead, but that he must try. The vastness of the deed and the honor of their sacrifice has made it so. Nevertheless, according to the custom of the day, he must attempt it. In transition, he continues by praising the ancestors, elaborating on the glory of the city they have built, the city-state of Athens. The great institutions of this state were a credit to their wisdom. Their struggles had won glory, power, and freedom for posterity. He says in essence that the state of Athens is a shining example to all other states. Their state is the fairest in all the land, and everyone is represented in the democracy. He says this as if to Imply that a democracy is more accountable and desirable. Praise was given to the wonderful bureaucracy, the most equitable of all the institutions. They were sure that the peace and fraternity of their city flowed from the greatness of democracy. 

    Above all security and prosperity are said to come from the state. After all, the state provides bread and circuses. The city has much trade because of the greatness of the state. The military of Athens is pictured as the sole defender of liberty. According to the general, his soldiers do not need to train hard, and yet are the best soldiers of all. He believes that the Virtues of Athenians are unparalleled. The people of their state are a grade above the rest of Greece. Athenians can and will do everything better, in peace and in war. The enemies and subjects of Athens attest to her glory, and history attests to the valor of the Athenian city-state and its people

    As a general, perecles is in touch with the motivations of his men, and h wants them to know that the struggle is worthy. He says that the deeds performed in the service of the state magnify their virtue, and unlike most, the deeds of those who die for the state are worthy sacrifices. As a statesman, he did not want soldiers to think about the cost of their sacrifices. He only needed them to believe fighting for the state would be worth it. In any case, these men would fight for for proper glory without trembling, it was an honorable cause. 

    Men will fight for anything if thy are made to believe their sacrifices are important. Thus it is important to give soldiers the impression that their deeds are noble beyond words. By not elaborting on exactly why it is so glorious to die for the state, sacrifices become justified by the beauty of what is allegedly protected.  In so doing, the sacrifice becomes the reward and the motivation for acting, and this glory increases with the magnitude of the thing being sacrificed for

    To the families of the dead, he gives the impression that they should be thankful. After all, they had many happy years with their sons, and now those sons died for a noble cause. He wants them to believe that the world has not come to an end, and life goes on. Many of them may have children again, than they should take solace in this. But if not, they should at least take comfort in the idea of honor and the sense of safety won by their lives. As citizens he encourages them to get on with their lives, honor the dead, and let their memory live in peace. He sys that women shouldn't cry too much, as it would make them weaker than they need to be. Now, he says, the state has paid its way in customary thoroughfare and in welfare for the children of the dead. Everyone will share in the expense of paying for the misery inflicted by rulers. He asks the people to enjoy the bread and circuses of the festival, and to depart in peace. 

    The tone of this speech is a tone of self-declared love for the state. It is designed to compel obedience from his people.  It does this by expounding on the glory and virtues of life within the state. He acts as if any sacrifice is worth it for the splendorous opportunity to participate in cosmopolitain life. He calls for soldiers to imitate the same virtue for the further glory and security of the state. The central point is really this: "The state benefits you, but you exist to serve the state. Take comfort from your collective pride in the polity, since that is the most worthy thing of all." The entire speech shows that the people of this time had no authentic spiritual life, because in reality, they worshipped the state. There is a real danger that Americans could become like this, and many already have. Young men are willing to die for their corrupt government, but deney christ before their brothers. I pray we will never decent to the level of the reeks during this war, but I fear we are already on th fast-track to do so again.